Table 3 A summary of putative biomarkers and their biological function that have been identified in nipple aspirate fluid
From: Evaluation of nipple aspirate fluid as a diagnostic tool for early detection of breast cancer
Biomarker (s) | Characteristics | References |
|---|---|---|
Prostate specific antigen (PSA) | Inversely proportional to disease stage, size of tumour, node status and distant metastases | |
Thomsen–Friedenreich (TFr) and Tn antigens | Predictive for the presence of breast cancer or atypia | |
Testosterone | Predictive in postmenopausal women only | |
Superoxide dismutase (SOD-1) | Involved in cancer initiation and progression by ROS related damages | [105] |
Protein DJ-1 | mRNA level increased but protein level decreased in tissue | [106] |
Cytokines/chemokines | High level of pro-inflammatory C–C and CXC chemokines. | [107] |
Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1), urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA) | Promotes breast cancer invasion and metastasis | |
Serotransferrin protein (TF) and ferritin (FTN) | Proliferation of cancer cells | [109] |
C-reactive protein (CRP) | Serum biomarker for metastasis of different type of cancers |